Counting potatoes: The size of Debian 2.2 - Jesus M. Gonzalez-Barahona (2002)
Debian is possibly the largest free software distribution, with well over 2,800 source packages in the latest stable release (Debian 2.2) and more than 4,000 source packages in the release currently in preparation. But, how large is "the largest"? We show that Debian 2.2 includes more than 55,000,000 physical SLOC (almost twice than Red Hat 7.1, released about 8 months later), showing that the Debian development model (based on the work of a large group of voluntary developers spread around the world) is at least as capable as other development methods (like the more centralized one) to manage distributions of this size. It is also shown that if Debian had been developed using traditional proprietary methods, that its cost would be close to $1.9 billion. In addition, we offer both an analysis of the programming languages used in the distribution.

De-Bugging open source software licensing - Gomulkiewicz, R.W. (University of Pittsburgh Law Review, 2002)
Keywords: licensing

Development Costs and Open Source Software - Xiaopeng Xu (2002)
This paper analyzes the effect of the development cost on an open source software enhancement that is developed by individual programmers in an Internet community. It considers a situation in which each programmer's cost of development is common knowledge but his valuation of the enhancement is his private information, with other programmers knowing about only its distribution. Depending on the distribution functions of programmers' valuations of the enhancement, a programmer with a lower development cost may have a less incentive to develop. As the development cost decreases, the enhancement may be less likely to be developed, and some programmers may be worse off.

Economic incentives for participating in open source software projects - Il-Horn Hann; Jeff Roberts; Sandra Slaughter; Roy Fielding (The Twenty-Third International Conference on Information Systems, 2002)
Using the Internet as a basis for communication, collaboration, and storage of artifacts, the open source community is producing software of a quality that was previously thought to be achievable only by professional engineers following strict software development paradigms. This accomplishment is even more astounding as developers contribute to the source code without any remuneration. Open source leaders as well as academics have proposed theories about the motivation of open source developers that are rooted in diverse fields such as social psychology and anthropology. However, Lerner and Tirole (2000) argue that developer participation in open source projects may, in part, be explained by existing economic theory regarding career concerns. This research seeks to confirm or disconfirm the existence of economic returns to participation in open source development. Our findings suggest that greater open source participation per se, as measured in contributions made, is not associated with wage increases. However, a higher status in a merit-based ranking within the Apache Project is associated with significantly higher wages. This suggests that employers do not reward the gain in experience through open source participation as an increase in human capital. The results are also consistent with the notion that a high rank within the Apache Software Foundation is a credible signal of the productive capacity of a programmer.
Keywords: apache; contributions; email; email archives; mailing list; organizational sponsorship; participation; patch; scm; source code; Survey; version control

The Economics of Open Source Networks - Federico Iannaci (2002)
The open-source movement is becoming an overarching feature of knowledgecreating environments and this research investigates the mechanisms whereby such a model comes into existence. Far from being the result of gifts of anonymous benefactors, the open-source model is the outcome of a conveyance of informative, valuative and incitive signals that larger sets of potential contributors construe in a subjective fashion. This study challenges the gift-economy metaphor and cautions the argument that open-source software is a reliable and generally applicable model for the forthcoming digital age.

The Economics of Open Source Software: A Survey of the Early Literature - Schiff, A. (Review of Network Economics, 2002)
This paper reviews the recent literature on the economics of open source software. Two different sets of issues are addressed. The first looks at the incentives of programmers to participate in open source projects. The second considers the business models used by profit-making firms in the open source industry, and the effects on existing closed source firms. Some possible future research directions are also given.
Keywords: business; commercial software; incentives; MOTIVATION

Editorial: Open source software engineering - Feller, J.; Fitzgerald, B.; van der Hoek, A. (IEE Proceedings - Software, 2002)

Effort, co-operation and co-ordination in an open source software project: GNOME - Koch, Stefan; Schneider, Georg (Information Systems Journal, 2002)
This paper presents results from research into open source projects from a software engineering perspective. The research methodology employed relies on public data retrieved from the CVS repository of the GNOME project and relevant discussion groups. This methodology is described, and results concerning the special characteristics of open source software development are given. These data are used for a first approach to estimating the total effort to be expended.
Keywords: cvs; discussion; effort estimation; gnome

The Emergence of a new commercial actor: community managed software projects (Please contact the author for the dissertation) - Siobhan O'Mahony (2002)
Institutional theory has matured to the point where we know a great deal about how institutions, once formed, are reproduced. We know less about how they are constructed. This study examines how social movements might inspire the creation of new organizing mechanisms. If new organizational forms result from recombination of existing elements, how might challenging and defending groups affect their construction? An inductive, ethnographic approach was used to examine interactions between community managed software projects from the free software and open source social movements (challengers) and established firms in the software industry (defenders). With interviews of seventy contributors and close examination of the practices used by four projects to manage their interactions with firms., I find that both community projects and firms made changes in their practices and form to better collaborate.

The evolution of the GNOME Project - Daniel M. German (Proceedings of the 2nd ICSE Workshop on Open Source, 2002)
The GNOME Project is an attempt to create a GUI desktop for Unix systems. Originally started by a handful of volunteers in 1996, GNOME has become the desktop of choice for Solaris, HP-UX, and Red Hat Linux, and it is currently developed by a team of approximately five hundred people around the world. The importance of GNOME to the Unix world has attracted the attention of several software companies who are actively participating in its development. At the same time, some of its volunteer developers have created enterprises who expect to sell services and products around GNOME. This extended abstract describes, first, the development model of GNOME, then the influence that private companies had had on the project: on one hand they are contributing a large amount of resources to the project, accelerating its development, and increasing its reliability and documentation; and on the other hand, the GNOME Foundation has been created to maintain the goal of the project to provide a free (as in freedom) software desktop for Unix, and avoid that the commercial interests of these partners could jeopardize the interests of the community.
Keywords: commercial software; gnome; organizational sponsorship

Evolution patterns of open-source software systems and communities - Nakakoji, Kumiyo; Yamamoto, Yasuhiro; Nishinaka, Yoshiyuki; Kishida, Kouichi; Ye, Yunwen (Proceedings of the International Workshop on Principles of Software Evolution, 2002)
Open-Source Software (OSS) development is regarded as a successful model of encouraging "natural product evolution". To understand how this "natural product evolution" happens, we have conducted a case study of four typical OSS projects. Unlike most previous studies on software evolution that focus on the evolution of the system per se, our study takes a broader perspective: It examines not only the evolution of OSS systems, but also the evolution of the associated OSS communities, as well as the relationship between the two types of evolution.Through the case study, we have found that while collaborative development within a community is the essential characteristic of OSS, different collaboration models exist, and that the difference in collaboration model results in different evolution patterns of OSS systems and communities. To treat such differences systematically, we propose to classify OSS into three types: Exploration-Oriented, Utility-Oriented, and Service-Oriented. Such a classification can provide guidance on the creation and maintenance of sustainable OSS development and communities.
Keywords: case study; open-source software (OSS); open-source software community; software evolution

An exploratory study of factors influencing the level of vitality and popularity of open source projects - Katherine Stewart; Ammeter, A. P. (the Twenty-Third International Conference on Information Systems, 2002)

An Exploratory Study of Factors Influencing the Level of Vitality and Popularity of Open Source Projects - Stewart, Katherine J.; Ammeter, Tony (ICIS 2002. Proceedings of International Conference on Information Systems 2002, 2002)
In this research, we ask the question: What differentiates successful from unsuccessful open source software projects? Using a sample of 240 open source projects, we examine how organizational sponsorship, target audience (developer versus end user), license choice, and development status interact over time to influence the extent to which open source software projects attract user attention and developer activity.
Keywords: activity; audience; developers; freshmeat; license analysis; licenses; organizational sponsorship; project success; roles; status; target audience; users

Exploring the Open Source Software Phenomenon: Issues for Organization Science - von Hippel, Eric (2002)
Currently two models of innovation are prevalent in organization science. The "private investment" model assumes returns to the innovator results from private goods and efficient regimes of intellectual property protection. The "collective action" model assumes that under conditions of market failure, innovators collaborate in order to produce a public good. In this paper we propose that open source software development is an exemplar of a compound model of innovation that contains elements of both the private investment and the collective action models. We describe a new set of research questions this model raises for scholars in organization science.

Exploring the Strengths and Limits of Open Source Software Engineering Processes: A Research Agenda - Kevin Crowston; Barbara Scozzi (Proceedings of the 2nd ICSE Workshop on Open Source, 2002)
Many researchers have investigated the nature and characteristics of open source software (OSS) projects and their developer communities. In this position paper, after examining some success factors, we discuss potential limits on the replicability and portability of OSS engineering processes. Based on this analysis, we propose a research agenda to better understand the current nature of the processes and thus the strengths and the limitations.
Keywords: replicability; requirements; research; research agenda

Forms of labour in information systems - Julian Warner (2002)
The idea of technology, including information technology, as a human construction is taken as the basis for the themes to be developed. The possibility of constructing an information dynamic, continuous with the dynamic of capitalism, is considered. Differentiations are made between forms of semiotic labour: semantic from syntactic labour and communal from universal labour. Information retrieval systems and the departure from the labour theory of copyright are considered in relation to the forms of labour distinguished. An information dynamic is constructed. The potential and limitations of syntactic labour are considered. The analytic value of the distinctions developed is differentiated from the possible predictive power of the dynamic indicated.

A Framework for Open Source Projects - Gregor J Rothfuss (2002)
The historical roots of Open Source are outlined. A comparison between Open Source projects and classical projects highlights strengths and weaknesses of both, and defines their attributes. Existing Open Source theories are evaluated, and the requirements for a framework for Open Source projects are determined. The framework introduces the notions of actors, roles, areas, processes and tools, and depicts their interrelationships in a matrix. Each aspect of the framework is then further developed to serve both as a conceptual foundation for Open Source and a help for organizing and managing Open Source projects.

A Framework for Understanding GPL copylefting vs. non copylefting licenses - Philippe Aigrain (2002)
This article provides a framework to discuss the consequences of licensing choices that are applied to publicly funded libre choices. It disucsses these choices from the angle of general public interest and policy. It concludes that one is led to prefer GPL for any libre software component that is publicly funded and when its is providing functionality as part of the common infrastructure of the information society.

Free/Libre and Open Source Software: Survey and Study - Rishab Ayer Ghosh; Rüdige Glott; Krieger, B.; Gregorio Robles (RA Ghosh, International Institute of Infonomics, University of Maastricht and Berlecon Research GmbH, 2002)

The Governance of Code: Open Land vs. UCITA Land - Serena Syme (2002)
Imagine two network societies. In one society, the transfer of information and use of software is governed by the various licenses used to protect open code today. For convenience, we dub this society "Open Land". The other society recently passed a law identical to the new Uniform Computer Information Transactions Act ("UCITA", passed in two U.S. states and pending in several others) to control its information and computer software. We will call this society "UCITA Land". This paper looks at the ways in which Open Land and UCITA Land differ. Although it might initially seem that a licensing framework is trivial in terms of the actual conduct of society, we posit that such frameworks in many ways define the mode of governance of network society. The establishment of a market involves the development of a bundle of rights that both create property and define the rules under which property-based transactions might occur. In Open Land and UCITA Land, fundamentally different approaches to the establishment of those rights lead to vastly different societies.

Government Policy Towards Open Source Software (Edited Book) - Robert Hahn (2002)
Can open source software?software that is usually available without charge and that individuals are free to modify?survive against the fierce competition of proprietary software, such as Microsoft Windows? Should the government intervene on its behalf? This book addresses a host of issues raised by the rapid growth of open source software, including government subsidies for research and development, government procurement policy, and patent and copyright policy. Contributors offer diverse perspectives on a phenomenon that has become a lightning rod for controversy in the field of information technology.

Government Preferences for Promoting Open-Source Software: A Solution in Search of a Problem - Bernard Reddy (2002)
Governments around the world are making or considering efforts to promote open-source software at he expense of proprietary software. This article examines the economic basis for these kinds of government interventions in the market. The article discusses the industrial organization and performance of the proprietary software business and describes how the open-source movement produces and distributes software. It then surveys current government proposals and initiatives to support open-source software and examines whether there is a significant market failure that would justify such intervention in the software industry. The article concludes that there is no evidence of any significant market failures in the provision of commercial software and no evidence that the establishment of policy preferences in favor of open-source software on the part of governments would increase consumer welfare.

High Quality and Open Source Software Practices - T. Halloran; W. Scherlis (Proceedings of the 2nd ICSE Workshop on Open Source, 2002)
Surveys suggest that, according to various metrics, the quality and dependability of today’s open source software is roughly on par with commercial and government developed software. What are the prospects for advancing to much higher levels of quality in open source software? More specifically, what attributes must be possessed by quality-related interventions for them to be feasibly adoptable in open source practice? In order to identify some of these attributes, we conducted a preliminary survey of the quality practices of a number of successful open source projects. We focus, in particular, on attributes related to adoptability by the open source practitioner community.
Keywords: apache; bug report; bug tracker; bug tracking system; feature requests; gcc; gnome; kde; lines of code; linux; loc; mozilla; netbeans; perl; position paper; python; sloc; source code; Survey; tomcat; xfree86

Horizontal innovation networks- by and for users - von Hippel, Eric (2002)
Innovation development, production, distribution and consumption networks can be built up horizontally with actors consisting only of innovation users. User innovation networks can function entirely independently of manufacturers when (1) at least some users have sufficient incentive to innovate, (2) at least some users have an incentive to voluntarily reveal their innovations, and (3) diffusion of innovations by users is low cost and can compete with commercial production and distribution. In this paper we explore the empirical evidence related to each of these matters and conclude that conditions favorable to user innovation networks are often present in the economy.

Institutional Entrepreneurship in the Sponsorship of Common Technological Standards: The Case of SUN Microsystems and Java - Raghu Garud (2002)
Institutional entrepreneurship implicit in a firm's sponsorship of its technology as a common standard is beset by several challenges. These challenges arise from a standard's property to enable and constrain even as potential competitors agree to cooperate on its creation. Our exploration of Sun Microsystems's sponsorship of its Java technology suggests that standards-in-the-making generate seeds of self-destruction. Our study also identifies the social and political skills that a sponsor deploys to address these challenges.

Knowing in Practice: Enacting a Collective Capability in Distributed Organizing - Wanda Orlikowski (Organization Science, 2002)
In this paper, I outline a perspective on knowing in practice which highlights the essential role of human action in knowing how to get things done in complex organizational work. The perspective suggests that knowing is not a static embedded ca- pability or stable disposition of actors, but rather an ongoing social accomplishment, constituted and reconstituted as actors engage the world in practice. In interpreting the findings of an empirical study conducted in a geographically dispersed high- tech organization, I suggest that the competence to do global product development is both collective and distributed, grounded in the everyday practices of organizational members. I conclude by discussing some of the research implications of a perspective on organizational knowing in practice.

New economic models, new economy for software - Melanie Clement-Fontaine (2002)
This report proposes some presentations and analysis of several FLOSS business models, and a juridical analysis of the use of Free licenses. We propose also a synthetical analysis of the impact of FLOSS on the computer industry.

On the Nonmaintainability of Open-Source Software - Schach, Stephen R.; Offutt, Jeff (Proceedings of the 2nd ICSE Workshop on Open Source, 2002)
Keywords: Common coupling; coupling; lines of code; linux; linux kernel; loc; metrics

Open Acquisition: Combining Open Source Software Development with System Acquisition - Walt Scacchi (2002)
This study explores and develops concepts leading to the combination of best practices from open source software development (OSSD) projects with emerging capabilities for virtual system acquisition. Virtual system acquisition is an evolving approach to demonstrate significant improvements in reducing the cost and cycle time for acquiring software-intensive systems, while improving their quality. It employs techniques from electronic government applications together with those from OSSD.

Open EC/B: A Case Study in Electronic Commerce and Open Source Software Development - Walt Scacchi (2002)
This study investigates how to understand and transform an organizational system for internal or external operations using Open Source E-Commerce or E-Business capabilities. The objective is to identify and characterize the organizational resources and development capabilities that lie at the center of the initiative.

Open Source and the Network Society - Soren Thing Pedersen (2002)
This paper discusses how the open source movement can be regarded as a civil society. Through an analysis and discussion of the recent development in society the context and to a certain extent the prerequisites surrounding the open source movement will be presented. The analysis and discussion of the open source movement will both derive advantage from this basis as well as throw new light back on the recent development in society.

The Open Source approach—opportunities and limitations with respect to security and privacy - Hansen, Marit; Köhntopp, Kristian; Pfitzmann, Andreas (Computers & Security, 2002)
Today’s software often does not even fulfil basic security or privacy requirements. Some people regard the open source paradigm as the solution to this problem. First, we carefully explain the security and privacy aspects of open source, which in particular offer the possibility for a dramatic increase in trustworthiness for and autonomy of the user. We show which expectations for an improvement of the software trustworthiness dilemma are realistic. Finally, we describe measures necessary for developing secure and trustworthy open source systems.
Keywords: security

Open source, open standards - Coyle, K. (Information Technology and Libraries, 2002)
When people speak of open source software they arc referring to computer code-programs that run. But code is only the final step in the information technology process. Prior to Writing code the information technology professional must do analysis to determine the nature of the problem to be solved and the best way to solve it. When software projects fail, the failure is more often than not attributable to shortcomings in the planning and analysis phase rather than in the coding itself. Open source software provides sonic particular challenges for planning since the code itself will be worked on by different programmers and will evolve over time. The success of all open source project will clearly depend on the clarity of the shared vision of the goals of the software and some strong definitions of basic fuctions and how they will work. This all-important work of defining often takes place through standards and the development of standards that everyone can use has become a movement in itself. open standards.

The Open Source rEvolution - A Pragmatic Approach to Making the Best of It - White, T.; Goldberg, J.; Scharich, L. (Proceedings of the 2nd ICSE Workshop on Open Source, 2002)

Open Source Software and Software Patents: Finding the Common Ground in a Patent Pool - Jason V. Morgan (2002)
Software patents threaten the future of the OSS community, especially with the increased importance of software standards and the change in attitude in the organizations forming these standards. The OSS community does not exercise much influence over the policymakers who have legitimized software patents because of differences between the two groups' motivations. There are many possible actions the OSS community could take, but an OSS patent pool is the best way for the OSS community to leverage both the patent system and the OSS culture to help protect the future of OSS.

Open Source Software and the Economics of Organization - Giampaolo Garzarelli (2002)
Open source software development has organizational characteristics that are out of the ordinary. The study suggests that this organization of work can be explained by combining the organizational theory of professions with the one of clubs. The claim is in fact that these organizations are at least as good as firms in sharing rich types of information in real time because (a) constituents have symmetry of absorptive capacity, and (b) software itself is a capital structure embodying knowledge.

Open Source Software Communities and Industrial Districts: A Useful Comparison? - Mario Maggioni (2002)
Aim of this paper is to add a new and complementary perspective on the existing economic analysis of open-source software by comparing the structure and evolution of open-source software communities and of industrial districts, a peculiar organisational form of production based on a large number of interacting small and medium sized enterprises. The comparison between open-source software communities and industrial districts, in spite of some major differences allows the recognition of the role played by agglomeration economies, an explicit analysis of the incentives structure - governing the private provision of complex public goods-, and an in depth study of the governance structure and evolution of these phenomena. The paper presents some simple simulations which show the dependence of the governance structure's evolution on transaction costs dynamics.

Is Open Source Software Development Faster, Better, and Cheaper than Software Engineering? - Walt Scacchi (Proceedings of the 2nd ICSE Workshop on Open Source, 2002)
In this paper, I draw attention to the question of determining how open source software development may represent a significant alternative to modern software engineering techniques for developing large-scale software systems. OSSD often entails shorter time frames, producing higher quality systems, and incurring lower costs than may be realized through developing systems according SE techniques. Understanding why and how this may arise is the focus of this paper.
Keywords: argouml; quality; tigris

The open source software development phenomenon: An analysis based on social network theory - Madey, G.; Freeh, V; Tynan, R (Proceedings of the Eighth Americas Conference on Information Systems, 2002)
The OSS movement is a phenomenon that challenges many traditional theories in economics, software engineering, business strategy, and IT management. Thousands of software programmers are spending tremendous amounts of time and effort writing and debugging software, most often with no direct monetary compensation. The programs, some of which are extremely large and complex, are written without the benefit of traditional project management, change tracking, or error checking techniques. Since the programmers are working outside of a traditional organizational reward structure, accountability is an issue as well. A significant portion of internet e-commerce runs on OSS, and thus many firms have little choice but to trust mission-critical e-commerce systems to run on such software, requiring IT management to deal with new types of socio-technical problems. A better understanding of how the OSS community functions may help IT planners make more informed decisions and develop more effective strategies for using OSS software. We hypothesize that open source software development can be modeled as self-organizing, collaboration, social networks. We analyze structural data on over 39,000 open source projects hosted at SourceForge.net involving over 33,000 developers. We define two software developers to be connected part of a collaboration social network if they are members of the same project, or are connected by a chain of connected developers. Project sizes, developer project participation, and clusters of connected developers are analyzed. We find evidence to support our hypothesis, primarily in the presence of power-law relationships on project sizes (number of developers per project), project membership (number of projects joined by a developer), and cluster sizes. Potential implications for IT researchers, IT managers, and governmental policy makers are discussed.
Keywords: developers; social network analysis; social networks; sourceforge

Open Source Software Production: Climbing on the Shoulders of Giants - Margit Osterloh; Sandra Rota (2002)
Open source software production is a successful new production model in which a public good is voluntarily provided. We argue that by studying this new production model we gain valuable insight for organization theory beyond software production. Under specific conditions this model can be generalized, contingent on the interplay of motivational, situational, and institutional factors. It is argued that a production model building on the shoulders of predecessors and peers depends on a well balanced portfolio of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, low costs for contributors and governance mechanisms that do not crowd out intrinsic motivation.

Open Source Software Projects as Virtual Organizations: Competency Rallying for Software Development - Kevin Crowston; Barbara Scozzi (IEE Proceedings Software, 2002)
The contribution of this paper is the identification and testing of factors important for the success of Open Source Software (OSS) projects. We present an analysis of OSS communities as virtual organizations and apply Katzy and Crowston's (2000) competency rallying (CR) theory to the case of OSS development projects. CR theory suggests that project participants must develop necessary competencies, identify and understand market opportunities, marshal competencies to meet the opportunity and manage a short-term cooperative process. Using data collected from 7477 OSS projects hosted by the SourceForge system (http://sourceforge.net/), we formulate and test a set of specific hypotheses derived from CR theory.
Keywords: competencies; competency rallying; coordination; project success; sourceforge; virtual organizations

Open standard: role of externalities and impact on the industry structure - Xavier Lecocq (2002)
Conceding a part of property rights appears counter-intuitive in regards to the Porterian and Resources-Based frameworks. However industrial economics literature and recent examples suggest that this strategy is fruitful to develop network externalities and consequently to impose a standard in network industries. This article explores the role of the sponsor and the impacts of an open property rights strategy on the industry structure. Drawing on the empirical data collected from the U.S. Roleplaying Game industry, our results reveal that: 1) the open approach promoted by a sponsor does not work effectively without network industries specific resources; 2) this strategy induces new entries that benefits to the sponsor; 3) the firms in the industry do not change their technological trajectories except those which are well endowed with resources.

Open-Source Artefact Management - Boldyreff, Cornelia; Nutter, David; Rank, Stephen (2nd Workshop on Open Source Software Engineering at ICSE 2002, 2002)
This paper presents the GENESIS project, which aims to develop an open-source, lightweight, process-aware (and process-neutral) workflow management system. In particular OSCAR, the artefact repository is discussed. The requirements of a system for artefact management and storage are described, and the concept of active artefacts is explained. The software engineering methods which will be used in the project are described, and some examples of the open-source tools which may be used are described.
Keywords: artefacts; artifacts; genesis; oscar; workflow

Open-Source vs. Proprietary Software - Jean-Michel Dalle; Nicolas Jullien (2002)
The article studies technological competition between open-source and proprietary software using a model from interaction theory. We argue that the organizational structure of open-source software, allowed by openness of source codes and by the subsequent development of dedicated communities, is a key feature which, together with compatibility, can allow open-source software to overcome existing proprietary standards.

An Overview of the Software Engineering Process and Tools in the Mozilla Project - Christian Robottom Reis (2002)
The Mozilla Project is an Open Source Software project which is dedicated to development of the Mozilla Web browser and application framework. Possessing one of the largest and most complex communities of developers among Open Source projects, it presents interesting requirements for a software process and the tools to support it. Over the past four years, process and tools have been refined to a point where they are both stable and effective in serving the project?s needs. This paper describes the software engineering aspect of a large Open Source project. It also covers the software engineering tools used in the Mozilla Project, since theMozilla process and tools are intimately related. These tools include Bugzilla, a Web application designed for bug tracking, bug triage, code review and correction; Tinderbox, an automated build and regression testing system; Bonsai, a tool which performs queries to the CVS code repository; and LXR, a hypertext-based source code browser.

Permanently Beta: Responsive Organization in the Internet Era - Gina Neff (2002)
How has the process of technological change in the Internet era influenced the way we organize economic activities? In this paper we discuss how information technologies foster the emergent design and user-driven design of websites and other online media, as well as products and organizations offline. A cycle of testing, feedback, and innovation facilitates ongoing negotiations around making products and around organizing that production. We call the organizational state of flux that emerges from these negotiations Permanently Beta. Beta testing, open source software, and interactive communities manifest aspects of permanently beta organization.

Progressive open source - Dinkelacker, Jamie; Garg, Pankaj K.; Miller, Rob; Nelson, Dean (Proceedings of the 24th International Conference on Software Engineering, 2002)
The success of several Open Source™ software systems, e.g., Apache, Bind, Emacs, and Linux, has recently sparked interest in studying and emulating the software engineering principles underlying this innovative development and use model. Certain aspects of the Open Source development method, e.g., community building, open discussions for requirements and features, and evolvable and modular designs are having fundamental and far reaching consequences on general software engineering practices.To leverage such Open Source methods and tools, we have defined an innovative software engineering paradigm for large corporations: Progressive Open Source (POS). POS leverages the power of Open Source methods and tools for large corporations in a progressive manner: starting from completely within the corporation, to include partner businesses, and eventually complete Open Source. In this paper we present the design goals and principles for POS. We illustrate POS with two programs in HP: Corporate Source and the Collaborative Development Program (CDP). We present early results from both these programs suggesting the power and necessity of POS for all modern large corporations.
Keywords: companies

Protecting the Virtual Commons: self-organizing communities and innovative intellectual property rights regimes - Rueben Van Wendel De Joode (2002)
This paper discusses the tensions between open source communities and proprietary software development and identifies a number of innovative regimes that should deal with these tensions.

Public Subsidies for Open Source? Some Economic Policy Issues of the Software Market - Klaus Schmidt (2002)
This paper discusses the economic merits of direct or indirect governmental support for open source projects. Software markets differ from standard textbook markets in three important respects that may give rise to market failures: (i) large economies of scale, (ii) crucially important innovations, (iii) significant network effects and switching costs. We analyze the differences between proprietary software and open source software with respect to these market features and ask whether open source as an alternative to proprietary software can mitigate these problems. Then we discuss the implications of various forms of governmental support for open source.

Reconciling investors and donators - The governance structure of open source - Egon Franck (2002)
The authors argue that the basic institutional innovation in open source has been the crafting of a governance structure, which enables investment without crowding out donations. The focus of the presented analysis lies on the specific institutional mechanisms, by which the open source governance structure achieves to reconcile the interests of investors and donators.

Roles and Knowledge Management in Online Technology Communities: An Ethnography Study - T.R. Madanmohan (2002)
Technical communities are groups who share a common interest in a technology. The literature on technology communities lacks a conceptual understanding of the roles of various players in the online community. An understanding of the different roles the members of the community and the impact of the roles on knowledge management is crucial to manage and sustain such online technical communities. This study based on an ethnographic analysis of two technical communities identifies seven distinct roles. The impact of each of the role on knowledge management activities is discussed.

The Scope of Open Source Licensing - Josh Lerner; Jean Tirole (Journal of Law, Economics and Organization, 2002)
This paper is an initial exploration of the determinants of open source license choice. It first enumerates the various considerations that should figure into the licensor's choice of contractual terms, in particular highlighting how the decision is shaped not just by the preferences of the licensor itself, but also by that of the community of developers. The paper then presents an empirical analysis of the determinants of license choice using the SourceForge database, a compilation of nearly 40,000 open source projects. Projects geared toward end-users tend to have restrictive licenses, while those oriented toward developers are less likely to do so. Projects that are designed to run on commercial operating systems and those geared towards the Internet are less likely to have restrictive licenses. Finally, projects that are likely to be attractive to consumers such as games are more likely to have restrictive licenses.
Keywords: developers; license; licenses; permissive; restrictive; sourceforge

Security in open versus closed systems—the dance of Boltzmann, Coase and Moore - Anderson, Ross (Technical report, Cambridge University, England, 2002)
Some members of the open-source and free software com- munity argue that their code is more secure, because vulnerabilities are easier for users to find and fix. Meanwhile the proprietary vendor com- munity maintains that access to source code rather makes things easier for the attackers. In this paper, I argue that this is the wrong way to approach the interaction between security and the openness of design. I show first that under quite reasonable assumptions the security assur- ance problem scales in such a way that making it either easier, or harder, to find attacks, will help attackers and defendants equally. This model may help us focus on and understand those cases where some asymmetry is introduced. However, there are more pressing security problems for the open source community. The interaction between security and openness is entangled with attempts to use security mechanisms for commercial advantage – to entrench monopolies, to control copyright, and above all to control interoperability. As an example, I will discuss TCPA, a recent initiative by Intel and others to build DRM technology into the PC platform. Al- though advertised as providing increased information security for users, it appears to have more to do with providing commercial advantage for vendors, and may pose an existential threat to open systems.
Keywords: security

On the security of open source software - Payne, Christian (Information systems journal, 2002)
With the rising popularity of so-called ‘open source’ software there has been increasing interest in both its various benefits and disadvantages. In particular, despite its prominent use in providing many aspects of the Internet’s basic infrastructure, many still question the suitability of such software for the commerce-oriented Internet of the future. This paper evaluates the suitability of open source software with respect to one of the key attributes that tomorrow’s Internet will require, namely security. It seeks to present a variety of arguments that have been made, both for and against open source security and analyses in relation to empirical evidence of system security from a previous study. The results represent preliminary quantitative evidence concerning the security issues surrounding the use and development of open source software, in particular relative to traditional proprietary software.
Keywords: security

Shaping Code - Jay Kesan (2002)
This article addresses how society shapes code. The term "code," as we use it, consists of the hardware and software components of information technologies. Code is increasingly being sought as a regulatory mechanism in conjunction with or as an alternative to law for addressing societal concerns such as crime, privacy, intellectual property protection, and revitalizing democratic discourse. This article analyzes how various societal institutions, that create code differentially, influence the technical and social characteristics of the code that is developed by them. The article also provides recommendations on how society can intervene and proactively shape the development of code to vindicate societal concerns and preferences.

Software Freedom, Open Software and the Participant's Motivation - A Multidisciplinary Study - Menelaos Tzouris (2002)
The success of Free/Open Source Software has demonstrated the viability and often the dominance of an alternative ? almost paradoxical ? form of software development. This innovative organisational formation and operation has, recently, been studied intensively. The current paper deals with the issue of participant?s motivation to join and then to operate in a free/open source software development process. However, it does not adopt a single perspective towards reaching a definite answer. On the contrary, building on accumulative research work, it argues that no single perspective is adequate to explain free/open source software participants? motivation, since each perspective provides a rather limited understanding of the issue.

TOOL: The Open Opinion Layer - Hasan Masum (2002)
Shared opinions drive society: what we read, how we vote, and where we shop are all heavily influenced by the choices of others. However, the cost in time and money to systematically share opinions remains high, while the actual performance history of opinion generators is often not tracked. This article explores the development of a distributed open opinion layer, which is given the generic name of TOOL. Similar to the evolution of network protocols as an underlying layer for many computational tasks, we suggest that TOOL has the potential to become a common substrate upon which many scientific, commercial, and social activities will be based.

Trust and vulnerability in open source software - Hissam, S. A.; Plakosh, D.; Weinstock, C. (Software, IEE Proceedings -, 2002)
Software plays an ever increasing role in the critical infrastructures that run our cities, manage our economies, and defend our nations. In 1999, the Presidents Information Technology Advisory Committee (PITAC) reported to the United States President the need for software components that are reliable, tested, modelled and secure supporting the development of predictably reliable and secure systems that underscore our critical infrastructures. Open source software (OSS) constitutes a viable source for software components. Some believe that OSS is more reliable and more secure than closed source software (CSS)-due to a phenomenon dubbed 'many eyeballs'-but is this truly the case? Or does OSS give the cyber criminal an edge that he would likewise not have? We explore OSS from the perspective of the cyber criminal and discuss what the community of software developers and users alike can do to increase their trust in both open source software and closed source software
Keywords: closed source software; community of software developers; critical infrastructures; cyber criminal; open source software; PITAC; predictably reliable systems; predictably secure systems; software components; trust; users; vulnerability

Two case studies of open source software development: Apache and Mozilla - Audris Mockus; Roy Fielding; Herbsleb, J. D. (ACM Transactions on Software Engineering and Methodology, 2002)
According to its proponents, open source style software development has the capacity to compete successfully, and perhaps in many cases displace, traditional commercial development methods. In order to begin investigating such claims, we examine data from two major open source projects, the Apache web server and the Mozilla browser. By using email archives of source code change history and problem reports we quantify aspects of developer participation, core team size, code ownership, productivity, defect density, and problem resolution intervals for these OSS projects. We develop several hypotheses by comparing the Apache project with several commercial projects. We then test and refine several of these hypotheses, based on an analysis of Mozilla data. We conclude with thoughts about the prospects for high- performance commercial/ open source process hybrids.
Keywords: apache; bug fixing; bug reports; bugzilla; change history; core; defect density; email; email archives; mailing list; mozilla; ownership; participation; productivity; scm; source code

Understanding oss as a self-organizing process - Madey, G.; Freeh, V; Tynan, R (In The 2nd Workshop on Open Source Software Engineering at the 24th International Conference on Software Engineering (ICSE2002, 2002)
We hypothesize that open source software development can be modeled as self-organizing, collaboration, social networks. We analyze structural data on over 39,000 open source projects hosted at SourceForge.net. We define two software developers to be connected — part of a collaboration social network — if they are members of the same project, or are connected by a chain of connected developers. Project sizes, developer project participation, and clusters of connected developers are analyzed. We find evidence to support our hypothesis, primarily in the presence of power-law relationships on project sizes (number of developers per project), project membership (number of projects joined by a developer), and cluster sizes.
Keywords: developers; size; social network analysis; social networks; sourceforge

Usability and Open Source Software - David M Nichols; Michael B Twidale (Working Paper 02/10, Department of Computer Science, University of Waikato, 2002)
Open source communities have successfully developed many pieces of software although most computer users only use proprietary applications. The usability of open source software is often regarded as one reason for this limited distribution. In this paper we review the existing evidence of the usability of open source software and discuss how the characteristics of open-source development influence usability. We describe how existing human-computer interaction techniques can be used to leverage distributed networked communities, of developers and users, to address issues of usability.

Version Control: A Case Study in the Challenges and Opportunities for Open Source Software Development - Chu-Carroll, M.C.; Sheilds, D.; Wright, J. (Proceedings of the 2nd ICSE Workshop on Open Source, 2002)
The growth of the worldwide open source development effort, driven in part by the recent entrance of large corporations into the open source arena, offers new opportunities to improve the software engineering tools available for that effort. Indeed, the increasing difficulty of managing large open source projects, as well as that of integrating related efforts into new programming environments, represents a challenge that must be met if the rapid growth of open source software is to continue. This position paper addresses these issues in the context of software version control.
Keywords: cvs; kernel; linux; linux kernel; version control

Where Do Open Source Requirements Come From (And What Should We Do About It)? - Bart Massey (Proceedings of the 2nd ICSE Workshop on Open Source, 2002)
The collection and specification of software requirements is one of the most intense areas of software engineering research. This makes it a natural area to explore when considering open-source software. In this paper, I argue that the sources of open-source software requirements differ in some important respects from the sources of commercial software project requirements. This has some interesting implications for both open-source and commercial development.
Keywords: requirements

Why Do Developers Contribute to Open Source Projects? First Evidence of Economic Incentives - Il-Horn Hann; Jeff Roberts; Sandra Slaughter; Roy Fielding (Proceedings of the 2nd ICSE Workshop on Open Source, 2002)
The availability of commercial quality, free software products such as the Apache HTTP (web) server or the Linux operating system has focused significant attention on the open source development process by which these products were created. One of the more perplexing aspects of open source software projects is why developers freely devote their time and energy to these projects. While many open source participants cite idealistic motives for participation, Lerner and Tirole (2000) argue that developer participation in open source projects may, in part, be explained by existing economic theory regarding career concerns. This research seeks to confirm or disconfirm the existence of economic returns to participation in open source development. Preliminary results of our empirical investigation suggest that greater open source participation per se, as measured in contributions made, does not lead to wage increases. However, a higher status in a merit-based ranking within the Apache Project does lead to significantly higher wages. This suggests that employers do not reward the gain in experience through open source participation as an increase in human capital. The results are also consistent with the notion that a high rank within the Apache Software Foundation is a credible signal of the productive capacity of a programmer.
Keywords: apache; contributions; cvs; developers; ECONOMICS; email; email archives; financial; Human capital; mailing list; MOTIVATION; participation; source code; version control

Why Not Improve Coordination in Distributed Software Development by Stealing Good Ideas from Open Source? - Audris Mockus; Herbsleb, James (Proceedings of the 2nd ICSE Workshop on Open Source, 2002)
Keywords: apache; communication; coordination; distributed

Working for Free? Motivations for Participating in Open-Source Projects - Hars, A. (International Journal of Electronic Commerce, 2002)

Working for free? Motivations for participating in open-source projects - Hars, A.; Ou, S. S. (International Journal of Electronic Commerce, 2002)
The success of the Linux operating system has demonstrated the viability of open-source software, an alternative form of software development that challenges traditional assumptions about software markets. Understanding why developers participate in open-source projects is crucial for assessing the impact of open-source software. Their motivations fall into two broad categories: internal factors (e.g., intrinsic motivation, altruism) and external rewards (e.g., expected future returns, personal needs). The results of a survey administered to open-source programmers are summarized.

Code, Culture and Cash: The Fading Altruism of Open Source Development - David Lancashire (First Monday, 2001)
The nexus of open source development appears to have shifted to Europe over the last ten years. This paper explains why this trend undermines cultural arguments about "hacker ethics" and "post-scarcity" gift economies. It suggests that classical economic theory offers a more succinct explanation for the peculiar international distribution of open source development: hacking rises and falls inversely to its opportunity cost. This finding throws doubt on the Schumpeterian assumption that the efficiency of industrial systems can be measured without reference to the social institutions that bind them.
Keywords: credits; email address; european; geography; gnome; linux

﻿﻿Conceptual Sociological Model for Open Source Software - Kishida, Kouichi (1st Workshop on Open Source Software Engineering at ICSE 2001, 2001)

Configuration Management for Open Source Software - Asklund, U.; Bendix, L. (1st Workshop on Open Source Software Engineering at ICSE 2001, 2001)
Open Source Software (OSS) projects have a seemingly anarchistic way of organising projects and a set-up (many, distributed developers) that is usually considered difficult to handle within the field of configuration management. Still they manage to produce software that is of at least as high a quality as that produced by Conventional Software Development (CSD) projects. We have investigated more closely what they actually do, and why they are so successful. The goal of the study was to describe their underlying configuration management process, thereby making it explicit, so it can be followed in case others (like commercial companies) want to start an OSS project or a project having similar characteristics. We also analysed to what extent their success is due to a good process, good tools or simply to outstanding people participating in OSS projects. Based on this, lessons could be learned from OSS and possible transferred to conventional ways of developing software. We interviewed key people from three OSS projects (KDE, Mozilla and Linux) to obtain data for our study.
Keywords: configuration management; interviews; project success

Corporate Source: Applying Open Source Concepts to a Corporate Environment - Dinkelacker, J.; Garg, P.K. (1st Workshop on Open Source Software Engineering at ICSE 2001, 2001)
Keywords: commercial software; hewlett packard; hp; organizational sponsorship

Creating a Free, Dependable Software Engineering Environment for Building Java Applications - Bittman, M.; Roos, R.; Kapfhammer, G.M. (1st Workshop on Open Source Software Engineering at ICSE 2001, 2001)
As open source software engineering becomes more prevalent, employing sound software engineering practices and the tools used to implement these practices becomes more important. This paper examines the current status of free software engineering tools. For each set of tools, we determined the important attributes that would best assist a developer in each stage of the waterfall model. We rated each tool based on predetermined attributes. We used the creation of a graphical user interface based email client in Java to assist in evaluating each tool. Our findings show that there is still a need for free tools to extract UML diagrams, test graphical user interfaces, make configuring Emacs easier, and profile Java applications. In other areas there are free tools that provide satisfactory functionality such as Concurrent Versions System (CVS), GVim, JUnit, JRefactory, GNU Make, Jakarta Ant, Javadoc, and Doc++.
Keywords: applications; cvs; Doc++; GNU Make; GVim; Jakarta Ant; java; Javadoc; jrefactory; junit; tools

Detecting Dominant Design - John Jordan (2001)
This paper derives a framework for the emergence of a dominant design in the web server market. Particular attention is given to factors important in network-based economies including network effects, standards, complimentary assets and technological change. A complete examination of the web server industry from its origins in the Internet through to today's market dominated by the products of open-source and proprietary software provides interesting insights into the application of the emergence framework.

Distributed Knowledge and the Global Organization of Software Development - Bruce Kogut (2001)
Open-source software development is a production model that exploits the distributed intelligence of participants in Internet communities. This model is efficient because of two related reasons: it avoids the inefficiencies of a strong intellectual property regime and it implements concurrently design and testing of software modules. The hazard of open source is that projects can ?fork? into competing versions. However, open-source communities consist of governance structures that constitutionally minimize this danger. Because open source works in a distributed environment, it presents an opportunity for developing coun-tries to participate in frontier innovation.

Does open source improve system security? - Witten, Brian; Landwehr, Carl; Caloyannides, Michael (IEEE Software, 2001)
An attacker could examine public source code to find flaws in a system. So, is source code access a net gain or loss for security? The authors consider this question from several perspectives and tentatively conclude that having source code available should work in favor of system security.
Keywords: security

Epistemic Communities, Situated Learning and Open Source Software - Kasper Edwards (2001)
This paper analyzes open source software development as an epistemic community where each individual open source software project is perceived as a single epistemic community. Open source software development is a learning process where the involved parties contribute to, and learn from, the community. It is discovered that theory of epistemic communities does indeed contribute to the understanding of open source software development.

An exploratory study of ideology and trust in open source development groups - Katherine Stewart; Gosain, S. (International Conference on Information Systems 2001, 2001)
Open source (OS) software development has been the subject of heightened interest among organizational scholars because of the novel social coordination practices that signal a departure from traditional proprietary software development. We propose that trust among group members in open source development groups (OSDGs) plays a key role in facilitating their success. Trust is important in this context because of the risk of opportunistic behavior by other members who volunteers may not have met and may never expect to meet, as well as a lack of explicit market contracts or common organizational affiliation. The open source community is differentiated by a coherent ideology that emphasizes a distinct set of interrelated norms, beliefs, and values. These serve to create incentives for open source practices that eschew conventional transactional norms in favor of a gift culture and a focus on reputations. In this study, we primarily examine the role of the shared ideology in enabling the development of affective and cognitive trust in OSDGs. We further examine how this trust leads to desired outcomes - group efficacy and effectiveness. The study is based on exploratory interviews, examination of archival records and a preliminary survey to understand the specific conditions of open source efforts on which this work-in-progress report is based. This is being followed-up by empirical testing of our research model through a survey of a broad variety of OSDGs. This study would contribute to a clarification of the role of trust in enabling software groups to work effectively and help to understand the bases of trust in ideology-permeated groups.
Keywords: contributors; groups; ideology; license analysis; licenses; metadata; open source; sourceforge; Survey; team; team size; teams; trust; types

Free Software/Free Science - Christoper Kelty (2001)
This paper explores the comparison often made between Free Software and scientific research, and the tendency to discuss both endeavors by positing a role for reputation as the currency of value. It discusses a handful of examples from the history and social study of science to explain how scholars have approached similar issues in understanding scientific activity. It also offers some speculations on the relationship between the metaphorical currency of reputation and real money, and that between metaphorical and actual intellectual property.

The future of ideas: the fate of the commons in a connected world - Lessig, L. (Random House, 2001)

Growth, evolution, and structural change in open source software - Michael Godfrey; Tu, Qiang (Proceedings of the 4th International Workshop on Principles of Software Evolution (IWPSE 2001), 2001)
Our recent work has addressed how and why software systems evolve over time, with a particular emphasis on software architecture and open source software systems [2, 3, 6]. In this position paper, we present a short summary of two recent projects. First, we have performed a case study on the evolution of the Linux kernel [3], as well as some other open source software (OSS) systems. We have found that several OSS systems appear not to obey some of "Lehman's laws" of software evolution [5, 7], and that Linux in particular is continuing to grow at a geometric rate. Currently, we are working on a detailed study of the evolution of one of the subsystems of the Linux kernel: the SCSI drivers subsystem. We have found that cloning, which is usually considered to be an indicator of lazy development and poor process, is quite common and is even considered to be a useful practice. Second, we are developing a tool called Beagle to aid software maintainers in understanding how large systems have changed over time. Beagle integrates data from various static analysis and metrics tools and provides a query engine as well as navigable visualizations. Of particular note, Beagle aims to provide help in modelling long term evolution of systems that have undergone architectural and structural change.
Keywords: agile methods; beagle; cloning; evolution; fetchmail; gcc; growth; kernel; lehman's laws; lines of code; linux; linux kernel; loc; open source software; software architecture; software evolution; source code; structural change; supporting environments; vim

How Communities Support Innovative Activities: As Exploration of Assistance and Sharing Among Innovative Users of Sporting Equipment - Nik Franke (2001)
This exploratory study finds that end-user innovators who are members of voluntary sports communities often receive assistance in developing their sports-equipment innovations from fellow community members. Innovation-related information and assistance, as well as the innovations themselves, are freely within these communities. The processes by which these communities operate may be of general interest both within and beyond the consumer product arena; for example, communities of open source software developers appear to operate in similar ways.

Innovating without Money: Linux and the Open Source Paradigm as an Alternative to Commercial Software Development - Mateos Garcia, Juan (2001)
This dissertation analyses two different paradigms used for the development of a operating systems by Microsoft Corporation and the Linux Community. Through the observation of the strategies and methodologies used by these actors in their work, and taking into account the constraints to which they are subject, assesses, from a dynamic perspective, the relative strengths and weaknesses of their competing paradigms. A theoretical model based on Giovanni Dosi?s "Technological Paradigms" framework, incorporating institutional, industrial, social and cultural aspects, is constructed and specifically adapted to the software industry case. The private management of technology issues considered during the analysis of the development processes inside different organisations are linked to questions having to do with the evolution of high technology, networked, markets.

Introducing a “Street Fair” Open source Practice Within Project Based Software Engineering Courses - Port, D.; Kaiser, G. (1st Workshop on Open Source Software Engineering at ICSE 2001, 2001)
Columbia University and USC, as well as many other universities, have software engineering courses where students work in small teams to develop a product of moderate complexity. Typically such efforts are “closed source” where teams do not (or are forbidden) from sharing information and providing assistance to other teams. There are certainly many justifiable reasons for this such as grading uniformity. Yet strong drivers such as grade competition, generally thought to promote quality results (i.e. successful projects), often do not. The authors ran an experiment introducing a style of open source practice called “street fair” with surprisingly positive results.
Keywords: education; educational resources

Leveraging Open-Source Communities To Improve the Quality & Performance of Open-Source Software - Schmidt, D.C.; Porter, A. (1st Workshop on Open Source Software Engineering at ICSE 2001, 2001)
Open-source processes have emerged as an effective approach to reduce cycle-time and decrease development and quality assurance costs for certain types of software. they are not without challenges, however, such as decreasing long-term maintenance and evolution costs, improving quality assurance, sustaining end-user confidence and good will, and ensuring the coherency of system-wide software and usability properties. Although aspects of these issues are unique to open-source development, well-organized open-source projects make it easier to address certain of these challenges compared with traditional closed-source approaches to building software. We have begun a long-term research effort, called Skoll, whose goal is to leverage common open-source project assets, such as their technologically sophisticated worldwide user communities, to devise techniques that address key challenges of open-source software development. In particular, we are conducting a long-term case study of two widely used open-source projects, ACE and TAO, to design, deploy, and evaluate techniques for improving quality through continuous distributed testing and profiling. This position paper presents our view of the pros and cons of open-source processes and outlines the work we are doing to improve the quality and performance of open-source software.

Management and Virtual Decentralized Networks: The Linux Project - George Dafermos (2001)
This paper examines whether geographically dispersed knowledge workers can virtually collaborate for a project under no central planning. Co-ordination, management and the role of knowledge arise as the central areas of focus. The Linux Project and its development model are selected as a case of analysis and the critical success factors of this organizational design are identified. The study proceeds to the formulation of a framework that can be applied to all kinds of virtual decentralized work and concludes that value creation is maximized when there is intense interaction and uninhibited sharing of information between the organization and the surrounding community.

Managing Information Quality in Virtual Communities of Practice - Andreas Neus (2001)
In this paper we review how the new economics of information enable a new paradigm of collaboration. Spearheaded by the Open Source community, this evolutionary approach to collaborative content creation is a way to address information quality in virtual communities of practice. Based on experience gained in community projects, a few simple steps toward improving the quality of information in virtual communities are presented and illustrated.

Open Source Development: A suitable Method to introduce a standardized communication protocol? - Spangler, Achim (1st Workshop on Open Source Software Engineering at ICSE 2001, 2001)
Open Source developments like telnet and Apache are very important for an extensive and compatible use of the TCP/IP and the HTTP protocol. Both contain features which rely on a compatible implementation of complex interactions between computers of different platform types. This can be successfully achieved with the help of Open Source. Reconciliation of different interpretations of the standard, clarifications and extensions can be realised by discussion systems and some generally accepted conciliators of Open Source projects. As long as companies have a commercial interest in selling solutions based on the protocol, it makes economic sense for them to jointly support its common implementation. This paper examines the possibility to use an Open Source reference implementation of the agricultural communication protocols DIN 9684 [1] [2] and ISO 11783 to establish a capable and compatible implementation in agricultural mobile process control and data collection.
Keywords: communication protocol; DIN 9684; ISO 11783; open source

Open Source Development: An Arthurian Legend - Cook, J. (1st Workshop on Open Source Software Engineering at ICSE 2001, 2001)
OSSD (Open Source Software Development) achieves remarkable success in delivering complex software systems – systems which are incredibly reliable and robust – in a short amount of time and without even paying anyone! Naturally, in the face of this success, organizations are interested in seeing if the mechanisms behind OSSD success can be migrated into their own practices, hopefully improving their systems and their productivity. In this paper, we look (lighthearted at first) at the motivations behind those involved in OSSD and describe the problems that need to be overcome if OSSD-type practices can be migrated into traditional organizations.
Keywords: commercial software; developers; MOTIVATION

Open Source Shows the Way - Innovation By and For Users - No Manufacturer Required - von Hippel, Eric (2001)
Open source software projects are complete innovation development and consumption communities run by and for users, no manufacturer required. This essay points out that user innovation communities have existed long before and extend far beyond open source software. The example of user innovation communities as the developers of new sports, sporting techniques, and new sporting equipment is described.

Open Source Software Developments in XP Style - Nishinaka, Y. (1st Workshop on Open Source Software Engineering at ICSE 2001, 2001)

Open Source Software: The Other Commercial Software - Hissam, S.; Weinstock, C. (1st Workshop on Open Source Software Engineering at ICSE 2001, 2001)
Open source software is a source of components from which systems can be built. Components can also be acquired in the marketplace. There are a myriad of issues that affect software that incorporates commercial components. These issues (and others) also affect open source software. In this paper we examine issues that an organization using open source software is likely to face in light of lessons learned from the world of commercial components
Keywords: commercial off-the-shelf software; commercial software; COTS software; open source software

Open Source Standardization: The Rise of Linux in the Network Era - Joel West; Dedrick, Jason (Knowledge, Technology & Policy, 2001)
To attract complementary assets, firms that sponsor proprietary de facto compatibility standards must trade off control of the standard against the imperative for adoption. For example, Microsoft and Intel in turn gained pervasive adoption of their technologies by appropriating only a single layer of the standards architecture and encouraging competition in other layers. In reaction to such proprietary strategies, the open source movement relinquished control to maximize adoption. To illustrate this, we examine the rise of the Linux operating system from 1995-2001, particularly the motivations of organizational buyers and suppliers of complementary assets, and Microsoft?s reaction to its success.

Open source standards on software process: A practical application - Freericks, C. (Ieee Communications Magazine, 2001)
Standards are generally delivered by means of static documents which are difficult to handle and to learn. Although their source text might have an open access, they do not offer an open source environment which effectively supports their assimilation, comprehension, and use. To achieve this goal, standards regulating the software process should be delivered in different "workable" formats to allow users to immediately start applying them with the support of software tools and methodologies.

Opening The Code: Software Excellence As A Function Of Its Development Environment - David McLaughlin (2001)
Software is an increasingly important component of the modern world; indeed, software forms the architecture around which today?s digital society is built. Because of the complex interrelationship between computer code, liberty, and the distribution of power in society, the environment in which code is produced makes a tremendous difference in the resulting structure of the world. An "Open" foundation for software development provides a variety of economic and societal benefits, but there are a number of preconditions necessary for its full deployment. One of the primary stumbling blocks is the need for the Open development process to demonstrate its capacity for producing "excellent" software. This thesis tackles that obstacle by first defining excellence in software, and then examining the software ecosystems that surround proprietary and Open Source conceptions of digital property in terms of their incentive structures–incentives that either encourage or discourage quality. Herein, this thesis demonstrates that not only can an Open Source development model produce quality software, but it also takes advantage of the complex adaptive systems model of diversity and adaptation to better meet the established criteria of an "ideal" software development system.

Peripheral Members in Online Communities - Wei Zhang (2001)
Organizations are exploring the role communities play in knowledge management and online communities are attracting more and more attentions. One difference between online communities and conventional communities lies in the large number of peripheral members in online communities, which is the focus of the study. The study empirically verifies the important role peripheral members play in online communities. It also suggests that in addition to benefiting from online communities, peripheral members also contribute to online communities.

Positive Intellectual Rights and Information Exchanges - Philippe Aigrain (2001)
This paper proposes a reversal in how to consider the rights associated with information, media contents, software and other intellectual entities. The proposed approach sets as its basis a number of positive intellectual rights, defined as to enable wide societal production and exchange of intellectual entities. It then defines how granting of specific attributes of property is necessary as to ensure that the positive rights are not abused to the detriment of some basic values, and are implemented in reality. Such a reversal allows to exploit the benefits of information and communication technology. More generally, it debates right issues for the technology of the intangible.

The ramp-up challenge in open-source software projects - Cubranic, Davor (1st Workshop on Open Source Software Engineering at ICSE 2001, 2001)

Reputation Layers for Open-Source Development - Hasan Masum (1st Workshop on Open Source Software Engineering at ICSE 2001, 2001)
Keywords: currency; developers; MOTIVATION; reputation

Software Architectures and Open Source Software – Where can Research Leverage the Most? - Arief, B.; Gacek, C.; Lawrie, T. (1st Workshop on Open Source Software Engineering at ICSE 2001, 2001)
Software architectures have been playing a central role in software engineering research for some years now. They are considered of pivotal importance in the success of complex software systems development. However, with the emergence of Open Source Software (OSS) development, a new opportunity for studying architectural issues arises. In this paper, we introduce accepted notions of software architectures (Section 2), discuss some of the known issues in OSS (Section 3), resulting in a set of aspects we consider to be relevant for future research (Section 4).
Keywords: architecture; software architecture

Software Development Practices in Open Software Development Communities: A Comparative Case Study - Walt Scacchi (1st Workshop on Open Source Software Engineering at ICSE 2001, 2001)
This study presents an initial set of findings from an empirical study of social processes, technical system configurations, organizational contexts, and interrelationships that give rise to open software. "Open software", or more narrowly, open source software, represents an approach for communities of like-minded participants to develop software system representations that are intended to be shared freely, rather than offered as closed commercial products. While there is a growing popular literature attesting to open software [DiBona, Ockman, Stone 1999, Fogel 1999], there are very few systematic studies [e.g., Feller and Fitzgerald 2000, Mockus, Fielding, Herbsleb 2000] that informs how these communities produce software. Similarly, little is known about how people in these communities coordinate software development across different settings, or about what software processes, work practices, and organizational contexts are necessary to their success. To the extent that academic research communities and commercial enterprises seek the supposed efficacy of open software [Smarr and Graham 2000], they will need grounded models of the processes and practices of open software development to allow effective investment of their resources. This study investigates four communities engaged in open software development. Case study methods are used to compare practices across communities.
Keywords: apache; argouml; astronomy; chandra; games; infrastructure; internet news; mozilla; systems design

Software Engineering Lessons from Open Source Projects - Asundi, J. (1st Workshop on Open Source Software Engineering at ICSE 2001, 2001)
The Open Source form of software development has captured the attention of academics and software practitioners alike. Though, this ‘phenomenon’ has been touted by some to be how all software will eventually be developed, many are critical about how far this form of organization will be successful. It is very likely that both the traditional form as well as the Open Source form of organization for software projects may co-exist. The position taken in this paper is that commercial projects can learn important lessons from Open Source projects. This paper tries to capture the elements of Open Source projects that can be applied to traditional commercial projects and the means by which further information can be gathered.

Software Engineering Research in the Bazaar - Hassan, Ahmed E.; Godfrey, Michael W.; Holt, Richard C. (1st Workshop on Open Source Software Engineering at ICSE 2001, 2001)
During the last five years, our research group has studied the architecture and evolution of several large open source systems — including Linux, GCC, VIM, Mozilla, and Apache — and we have found that open source software systems often exhibit interesting differences when compared to similar commercially-developed systems. Our investigations of these systems have involved the creation of software architecture models, software architecture repair, the creation of a reference architecture for web servers, the study of evolution and growth of open source systems, and the modelling of architectural properties of systems that are apparent only at build time.
Keywords: apache; architecture; gcc; kernel; linux; linux kernel; mozilla; open source software; software architecture; Software Engineering Research; source code; vim

The Strategy Finding Task Within Collaborative Networks, Based on an Exemplary Case of the Linux Community - Rueben Van Wendel De Joode (2001)
This article will focus on how the strategy-finding task is performed within virtual organisations in general and in the open source community of Linux in particular. This article will demonstrate that one of the reasons for the success of Linux is the way the strategic finding task is fulfilled in this community.The point to be shown in this paper is the self-organising power and apparent success of emergent ('bottom up') strategy finding processes within the Linux community, ensuring the interaction between change trajectories of both its internal resources and external threats and weaknesses. It will be shown that a number of mechanisms have institutionalised this interaction in the community.

Striking a balance between trust anti control in a virtual organization: a content analysis of open source software case studies - Gallivan, M. J. (Information Systems Journal, 2001)
Many organization theorists have predicted the emergence of the networked or virtual firm as a model for the design of future organizations. Researchers have also emphasized the importance of trust as a necessary condition for ensuring the success of virtual organizations. This paper examines the open source software (OSS) 'movement' as an example of a virtual organization and proposes a model that runs contrary to the belief that trust is critical for virtual organizations. Instead, I argue that various control mechanisms can ensure the effective performance of autonomous agents who participate in virtual organizations. Borrowing from the theory of the 'McDonaldization' of society, I argue that, given a set of practices to ensure the control, efficiency, predictability and calculability of processes and outcomes in virtual organizations, effective performance may occur in the absence of trust. As support for my argument, I employ content analysis to examine a set of published case studies of OSS projects. My results show that, although that trust is rarely mentioned, ensuring control is an important criterion for effective performance within OSS projects. The case studies feature few references to other dimensions of 'McDonaldization' (efficiency, predictability and calculability), however, and I conclude that the OSS movement relies on many other forms of social control and self-control, which are often unacknowledged in OSS projects. Through these implicit forms of control, OSS projects are able to secure the cooperation of the autonomous agents that participate in project teams. I conclude by extrapolating from these case studies to other virtual organizations.
Keywords: apache; case studies; Control; fetchmail; jun; linux; linux kernel; McDonaldization; mozilla; networked organization; perl; rationalization; trust; virtual organization

Taxonomy of Open Source Software Development - Nakakoji, K.; Yamamoto, Y. (1st Workshop on Open Source Software Engineering at ICSE 2001, 2001)
Keywords: jun; linux; postgresql; wingnut

Understanding the Requirements for Developing Open Source Software Systems - Walt Scacchi (IEE Proceedings Software, 2001)
This study presents an initial set of findings from an empirical study of social processes, technical system configurations, organizational contexts, and interrelationships that give rise to open software. The focus is directed at understanding the requirements for open software development efforts, and how the development of these requirements differs from those traditional to software engineering and requirements engineering. Four open software development communities are described, examined, and compared to help discover what these differences may be. Eight kinds of software informalisms are found to play a critical role in the elicitation, analysis, specification, validation, and management of requirements for developing open software systems. Subsequently, understanding the roles these software informalisms take in a new formulation of the requirements development process for open source software is the focus of this study. This focus enables considering a reformulation of the requirements engineering process and its associated artifacts or (in)formalisms to better account for the requirements for developing open source software systems.

Usability and open-source software development - David M Nichols; Kirsten Thomson; Stuart A Yeates (Proceedings of the Symposium on Computer Human Interaction, 2001)
This paper reports a usability study of the open-source Greenstone Digital Library collection-building software. The problems highlighted by the study are analysed to identify their likely source within the social context of Greenstone's development environment. We discuss how characteristics of open-source software development influence the usability of resulting software products.
Keywords: Greenstone; user study

The Use of Computer Conferencing as an Organizational Knowledge Transfer - William Pope (2001)
Electronic bulletin boards were used as an organization-wide problem solving process that transferred private knowledge. Key organizational implications were found.

The Web of Knowledge: An Investigation of Knowledge Exchange in Networks of Practice - Samer Faraj (2001)
Electronic ties are loosening the constraints of organizational structure and physical proximity to allow connectivity between individuals who would otherwise find it difficult to identify and sustain contact with others who share the similar interests. This paper explores the knowledge exchange processes in extra-organizational networks of practice by studying three technical newsgroups. We argue that the development of relational social capital is a vital component for transforming electronic posting forums into ongoing networks of practice. The results reveal that relational social capital exists on networks of practice and shows a strong relationship with knowledge exchange processes over and above the influence of individual motivation and ability.

A Case Study of Open Source Software Development: The Apache Server - Audris Mockus; Roy Fielding; Herbsleb, James (Proceedings of the International Conference on Software Engineering (ICSE 2000), 2000)
According to its proponents, open source style software development has the capacity to compete successfully, and perhaps in many cases displace, traditional commercial development methods. We examine the development process of a major open source application, the Apache web server. By using email archives of source code change history and problem reports we quantify aspects of developer participation, core team size, code ownership, productivity, defect density, and problem resolution interval for this OSS project. This analysis reveals a unique process, which performs well on important measures.
Keywords: apache; bug fix revisions; bugs; core; cvs; defect density; developers; email archives; participation; productivity; revision control; revision history; roles; scm; source code; team size

Collaboration with Lean Media: how open-source software succeeds - Yamauchi, Yutaka; Yokozawa, Makoto; Shinohara, Takeshi; Ishida, Toru (Proceedings of the 2000 ACM conference on Computer supported cooperative work (CSCW), 2000)
Open-source software, usually created by volunteer programmers dispersed worldwide, now competes with that developed by software firms. This achievement is particularly impressive as open-source programmers rarely meet. They rely heavily on electronic media, which preclude the benefits of face-to-face contact that programmers enjoy within firms. In this paper, we describe findings that address this paradox based on observation, interviews and quantitative analyses of two open-source projects. The findings suggest that spontaneous work coordinated afterward is effective, rational organizational culture helps achieve agreement among members and communications media moderately support spontaneous work. These findings can imply a new model of dispersed collaboration.
Keywords: cooperative work; cvs; distributed work; electronic media; INNOVATION; open-source; software engineering

Economic Model for Impact of Open Source Software - Asif Khalak (2000)
This paper presents an economic model of the impact of Open Source Software (OSS) upon a commercial software market. Agents are used to model the users (buyers), the companies (sellers), the code bank (marketplace), and the OSS community (source of free goods). The effect of introducing open source products into an equilibrium commercial market is investigated with respect to demand structure.

Economics of Open Source Software - Justin Pappas Johnson (2000)
A simple model of open source software is presented. Individual user-programmers decide whether to invest their valuable time and effort to develop a software application that will become a public good if so developed. The benefits and drawbacks of open source versus profit driven developments are presented. The effect of changing the population size of user-programmers is considered; finite and asymptotic results (relevant for some of the larger projects that exist) are given.

Essence of Distributed Work: The Case of the Linux Kernel - JY Moon (2000)
This paper provides a historical account of how the Linux operating system kernel was developed from three different perspectives. Each focuses on different critical factors in its success at the individual, group, and community levels. The paper concludes by summarizing the factors important in the successful distributed development of the Linux kernel, and the implications for organizationally managed distributed work arrangements.

Evolution in Open Source Software: A Case Study - Godfrey, Michael W.; Tu, Qiang (Proceedings of the International Conference on Software Maintenance (ICSM'00), 2000)
Most studies of software evolution have been performed on systems developed within a single company using traditional management techniques. With the widespread availability of several large software systems that have been developed using an 'open source' development approach, we now have a chance to examine these systems in detail, and see if their evolutionary narratives are significantly different from commercially developed systems. This paper summarizes our preliminary investigations into the evolution of the best known open source system: the Linux operating system kernel. Because Linux is large (over two million lines of code in the most recent version) and because its development model is not as tightly planned and managed as most industrial software processes, we had expected to find that Linux was growing more slowly as it got bigger and more complex. Instead, we have found that Linux has been growing at a super-linear rate for several years. In this paper, we explore the evolution of the Linux kernel both at the system level and within the major subsystems, and we discuss why we think Linux continues to exhibit such strong growth.
Keywords: evolution; functions; growth; lines of code; linux; linux kernel; loc; source code

A framework analysis of the open source software development paradigm - Feller, Joseph; Fitzgerald, Brian (Proceedings of the twenty first international conference on Information systems, 2000)
Open Source Software (OSS) has become the subject of much commercial interest of late. Certainly, OSS seems to hold much promise in addressing the core issues of the software crisis, namely that of software taking too long to develop, exceeding its budget, and not working very well. Indeed, there have been several examples of significant OSS success stories—the Linux operating system, the Apache web server, the BIND domain name resolution utility, to name but a few. However, little by way of rigorous academic research on OSS has been conducted to date. In this study, a framework was derived from two previous frameworks which have been very influential in the IS field, namely that of Zachman’s IS architecture (ISA) and Checkland’s CATWOE framework from Soft Systems Methodology (SSM). The resulting framework is used to analyze the OSS approach in detail. The potential future of OSS research is also discussed.

Internet Innovation and Open Source: Actors in the Network - Ilkka Tuomi (2000)
The paper analyzes the growth and development of the Linux community and demonstrates how it evolves into an ecology of community-centered practices.

The Linux Kernel Development As a Model of Knowledge Creation - Gwendolyn Lee (2000)
Applying the method of induction theory building, the authors have developed a case study based on the Linux kernel development process to build a model of Open Source knowledge creation.

Open source movements as a model for organising - Ljungberg, J. (European Journal of Information Systems, 2000)
Open source software such as the operating system Linux has in a few years created much attention as an alternative way to develop and distribute software. Open source is to let anyone have access to the source code, so that they can modify it. Open source could be seen as a movement, where communities of highly skilled programmers collectively develop software, often of a quality that outperforms commercial proprietary software. These movements are based on virtual networking on Internet and the web. They are loosely coupled communities kept together by strong common values related to hacker culture. Work seems to be totally distributed, delegated and loosely coupled. The highly skilled members contribute by pride to the collective effort of free software development. In this paper the open source phenomena is investigated from different perspectives. In this paper it is claimed that the open source movements is one key to the understanding of future forms of organizations, knowledge work and business.

Open Source Software As Consumer Integration Into Production - Jenny Kuan (2000)
The author proposes a model of consumer integration into production as means of understanding the Open Source software phenomenon.

The Political Economy of Open Source - Steven Weber (2000)
The paper describes the open source process and characterizes more fully the economic, technological, and social systems that together constitute this distinct mode of production. The paper explains the open source process, by answering three questions about individual motivations, coordination, and complexity using a compoud argument of microfoundations, economic logic, and social/political structure.

Profiting From Voluntary Information Spillovers: How Users Benefit By Freely Revealing Their Innovations - Dietmar Harhoff; Joachim Henkel; von Hippel, Eric (2000)
Software users reveal the code they have written to other users for free. This behavior is contrary to conventional wisdom in economics - but is essential to the functioning of an effective user innovation community. This paper explores conditions under which the free revealing of innovations (code, in the case of OS) pays for innovating users.

Results From Software Engineering Research Into Open Source Development Projects Using Public Data - Koch, Stefan; Schneider Georg (Diskussionspapiere zum Tätigkeitsfeld Informationsverarbeitung und Informationswirtschaft, 2000)
This paper presents first results from research into open source projects from a software engineering perspective. The research methodology employed relies on public data retrieved from the CVS-repository of the GNOME project and relevant discussion groups. This methodology is described in detail and some of the results concerning the special characteristics of open source software development are given.

The Simple Economics of Open Source - Josh Lerner (2000)
This paper makes a preliminary exploration of the economics of open source software. The authors highlight the extent to which labor economics, especially the literature of career concerns can explain many of these project features.

Sources and Patterns of Innovation in a Consumer Products Field: Innovations in Sporting Equipment - Sonali Shah (2000)
This study investigates the innovation histories of 57 important skateboarding, snowboarding, and windsurfing equipment innovations. Contrary to conventional wisdom, equipment for these new sports was not developed by existing sports equipment manufacturing companies. Innovations were instead developed by a few early and active participants in the new sports - users who built innovative equipment for themselves, their friends, and often built businesses focused on producing such equipment in order to appropriate benefit from their innovations and establish a lifestyle around the sport.

A Brief History of Hackerdom - Raymond, E.S. (Open Sources: Voices from the Open Source Revolution, 1999)

Code and Other Laws of Cyberspace - Lessig, L. (Basic Books, 1999)

Dimensions of information systems success - Seddon, PB; Staples, S; Patnayakuni, R; Bowtell, M (Communications of the Association for Information Systems, 1999)

An Empirical Approach to Studying Software Evolution - Kemerer, Chris F.; Sandra Slaughter (IEEE Transactions On Software Engineering, 1999)
With the approach of the new millennium, a primary focus in software engineering involves issues relating to upgrading, migrating, and evolving existing software systems. In this environment, the role of careful empirical studies as the basis for improving software maintenance processes, methods, and tools is highlighted. One of the most important processes that merits empirical evaluation is software evolution. Software evolution refers to the dynamic behavior of software systems as they are maintained and enhanced over their lifetimes. Software evolution is particularly important as systems in organizations become longer-lived. However, evolution is challenging to study due to the longitudinal nature of the phenomenon in addition to the usual difficulties in collecting empirical data. In this paper, we describe a set of methods and techniques that we have developed and adapted to empirically study software evolution. Our longitudinal empirical study involves collecting, coding, and analyzing more than 25,000 change events to 23 commercial software systems over a 20-year period. Using data from two of the systems, we illustrate the efficacy of flexible phase mapping and gamma sequence analytic methods originally developed in social psychology to examine group problem solving processes. We have adapted these techniques in the context of our study to identify and understand the phases through which a software system travels as it evolves over time. We contrast this approach with time series analysis, the more traditional way of studying longitudinal data. Our work demonstrates the advantages of applying methods and techniques from other domains to software engineering and illustrates how, despite difficulties, software evolution can be empirically studied.

The Revenge of the Hackers - Raymond, E.S. (Open Sources: Voices from the Open Source Revolution, 1999)

Scale and Convention: Programmed Languages in a Regulated America - Christoper Kelty (1999)
This thesis is a combination of an ethnography of an internet healthcare startup company and a philosophical investigation of technical standards, open and closed. Chapters K, L, and M are introductions to three main figures in the Open Source movement between 1998-2000 – Richard Stallman, Lawrence Lessig, and Eric Raymond.

Splitting the organization and integrating the code: Conway’s law revisited - Herbsleb, J. D.; Rebecca E. Grinter (the International Conference on Software Engineering (ICSE ‘99), 1999)

Changing Competitive Dynamics in Network Industries: An Exploration of SUN Microsystems' Open Systems Strategy - Raghu Garud (1993)
An integral part of competition is to deny rivals access to proprietary technical knowledge. Yet, SUN Microsystems provides rivals with easy access to its technical knowledge and encourages them to enter its workstation market. This paper employs theoretical insights on technological systems and network externalities to understand SUN's open systems strategy. The paper also explores the changing nature of competition in network industries.

Knee-jerk Anti-LOOPism and other E-mail Phenomena: Oral, Written, and Electronic Patterns in Computer-Mediated Communication - JoAnne Yates; Wanda Orlikowski (Technical Report, 1993)
This paper reports on an empirical investigation into the on-going electronic interaction of a natural distributed group. Prior organizational research into use of electronic media has focused primarily on usage patterns and only occasionally on a few linguistic features, while linguistics researchers have looked more closely at certain technical aspects of language use in electronic communication. Interested in a broader range of linguistic and textual features that might be exhibited in the electronic mail medium, we conducted an exploratory study of the electronic communication of a task-oriented group over a 27-month period. Using qualitative and quantitative techniques, we found that the electronic mail messages displayed features normally associated with both speech and written discourse, as well as features that seem new to the electronic medium. The use of all three patterns was influenced by characteristics of the medium, the group, and its task.

Game Theory and The Law: The Arbitration System - Guillermo Flores (1985)
The paper refers to a game-theoretic analysis of the nature of legal arbitration, and the effects of prior negotiation. Also, it promotes the use of final-offer arbitration in labor disputes and in the event of an strike.